The effect of reverberation and amplification on sound localisation Thesis

The effect of reverberation and amplification on sound localisation - Thesis Example In reverberant environments, most hearing impaired listeners are aware to the disturbance of the signals caused by the reverberation. However, when reverberation is minimum, the actual cause of disturbance is not clear to them and hence can be very frustrating. Localising a sound source in the horizontal plane relies mainly on two different sources of information: The differences in time of arrival of the sound at the two ears, and the level differences at the two ears. These time and level differences are called interaural time differences (ITD) cues and interaural level differences (ILD) cues. Recent improvements in hearing aids, such as compression and filtering, can significantly alter ITDs and ILDs. The digital processing to input signals tend to restrict the availability of fine timing cues, forcing the listener to rely on level cues. The effect of digital processing in hearing aids on the hearing aid wearers use of localisation cues in different listening environments is not well understood. The aim of this dissertation is to investigate the effect of reverberation on the localisation abilities of normal hearing and hearing impaired listeners. Moreover, to investigate the effect of Siemens Prisma 2M hearing aids utilizing the localisation cues. Two main sets of experiments were conducted, The first set (4 experiments) were performed on normal hearing listeners to study the effect of reverberation and signal onset/offset times on their localisation abilities for different stimuli signals (i.e. Speech, high-pass speech-low-pass speech, pink noise, 4 KHz pure tone, and 500 Hz pure tone and under different reverberant environments. The second set of experiments was conducted on twenty eight Bilateral Siemense Prisma 2M wearers. They were tested under both reverberant and anechoic conditions, with and without the hearing aids. Signals used were speech stimulus, pink noise, high-pass pink noise and low-pass pink

Argumentative Essay Essay Example for Free

Argumentative Essay Essay In America there are so many people who live without healthcare. President Obama has tried hard to change that known fact by introducing and passing his new Obama Care Act. It is very important for people to have proper healthcare coverage, medical care, affordable medications, and for all healthcare services to be available to everyone, whether they are poor, middle class or rich. For most Americans, high quality care generally is readily accessible without long waits but at high cost. However, the uninsured and, increasingly, the underinsured, the poor, and members of underserved minorities often have poor access to health care and poor health outcomes. The health workforce is well trained, yet the United States faces a severe shortage of primary care physicians. Approximately 45% of the U.S. population has a chronic medical condition, and about 60 million people, half of these, have multiple chronic conditions; the CDC estimated these numbers during a recent survey. 2 Most Americans 250 million (84.2%) have some form of health insurance coverage. But an estimated 47 million Americans (15.8%) were uninsured for a year, as reported for 2006 by the U.S. Bureau of the Census. A survey by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that 43.6 million people (14.8%) of all ages were uninsured at the time of the National Health Expenditure Survey interview in 2006. However, as many as 89.5 million people under the age of 65 years lacked health insurance for a least 1 month or more during 2006-2007, according to a study by Lewin and associates published by Families USA. In addition, another 16 million people can be  considered underinsured. People without health insurance are much less likely than those with insurance to receive recommended preventive services and medications, are less likely to have access to regular care by a personal physician, and are less able to obtain needed health care services. Consequently, the uninsured are more likely to succumb to preventable illnesses, more likely to suffer complications from those illnesses, and more likely to die prematurely. The U.S. health care system has much potential for improvement. Disparities related to race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status has pervaded the U.S. health care system. In addition to the large numbers of Americans who lack adequate health insurance, the cost, quality, and utilization of health care services vary widely. Meanwhile, the need for long term care services and care coordination is increasing. Preventive care, cross discipline coordination, and proactive management of long term care might reduce the cost of care, but these services often are uncovered or poorly reimbursed. 3 Spending on health care in the United States has been rising at a faster pace than spending in the rest of the economy since the 1960’s. According to the Centers for Medicare Medicaid Services- National Health Statistics Group states that in 2005, national health care spending amounted to approximately $2.0 trillion, or $6697 per person and 16% of the gross domestic product. By 2015, health care spending is expected to reach $4.0 trillion. People with large medical care cost are often chronically ill, disabled, or poor. Our society’s inability to provide continuous, coherent patient centered care for this group of individuals is one cause of the high aggregate cost of health care and contributes to the cost of public insurance programs. Patients who enter Medicare without previous insurance but with chronic illness will be sicker and more disabled and therefore more costly to that government program. Health insurance premiums increased drastically since the year 2005. Many have been unable to even afford health coverage. Employer based health insurance has been the basis for paying for health services since 1940, but  it is fast eroding under the pressure of relentlessly rising costs of care. Despite the growing need for coordination of health care services, government and private insures pay for health care services primarily on a episodic, visit related basis with few, if any, incentives for providing comprehensive, coordinated, and continuous care for the prevention and management of chronic illness. Primary care physicians now spend about 20% of their time in unreimbursed coordination of care tasks using the telephone or e-mail. Despite repeated attempts to rein in federal expenditures for Medicare and Medicaid, federal have continued to increase much faster than inflation in the entire economy. 4 The Medicaid program provides medical benefits to over 52 million people who meet categorical eligibility standards. The federal government and the state share responsibility for funding Medicaid. The success of the VA system in dramatically restructuring itself indicates that major gains can be achieved in the United States in improving health care access and quality while reducing costs. One response to rising health care costs has been the adoption of consumer directed health plans in which the individual takes greater responsibility for paying for care out of pocket rather than the employer or government. Unfortunately, for those with modest incomes, cost sharing has reduced medically necessary care, such as taking medicines for hypertension. The United States is in such a crisis when it comes to the health care system, yet is very important to see that every one of its citizens is afforded health coverage. People are sickly in this nation, like it is in other countries. The United States is in the midst of a primary health care workforce crisis that is expected to worsen in the next decade. The population is aging, and baby boomers are at a high, and a large amount of people will soon be over 65 years and at greater risk for needing care for chronic conditions. The United States should continue to work on having national policies introduced to the health care system to help guide training, supply, and the distribution of health care providers to better assist those in need of health coverage. It is very important to make this a reality, because we the  people of the United States need to be able to receive medical care, and health coverage, no matter if we are rich or poor in this society.

Alternate Ways of Measuring Performance Essay -- Essays Papers

Balanced Scorecard Alternate Ways of Measuring Performance Abstract Many organizations are usefully viewed as a web of relationships between and among various stakeholder groups. An organization may be defined as a "nexus of contracts," where said "contracts" are relationships that are marked by contributions from the various stakeholders in return for inducements provided by the organization. Over the long haul, the success of an organization is a function of the extent to which the needs and requirements of its various stakeholders can be integrated and balanced, without sacrificing any one to the other. There is, in this arrangement, mutual influence and accountability. It is the main thesis of this paper that many organizations would be well served by making use of the Balanced Scorecard as an alternate way of evaluating a company’s performance. Introduction Since its introduction in the Harvard Business Review in 1992, many corporate executives and information technology (IT) professionals have found the concept of Balanced Scorecard it to be a key strategic measuring stick of corporate success. Robert Kaplan and David Norton created balanced Scorecard, often referred to as BSC, in the early 1990’s. Today many large consulting firms like Pricewaterhouse Coopers and Earnst and Young have adopted the balanced scorecard concept. A balanced scorecard is a framework for translating strategic goals and visions into measurable results for the entire enterprise. The balanced scorecard starts with corporate strategies and objectives, and then uses financial and non-financial measures from across the company to create positive and negative indicators of corporate success for all levels of the organization (Kaplan and Norton, 1992). These indicators provide an in depth snap shot of corporate performance that managers and executives can use to clearly manage the company for success on a daily basis. Since the scorecard is based on key performance indicators (KPIs) that are directly linked to corporate goals, it provides a true measure of corporate success. These KPIs consist not just of financial indicators, but also of performance measures in customer satisfaction, internal process, and innovation and improvement (Kaplan Norton, 1992). The breadth and diversity provided by all four perspectives give managers an ideal cross-func... ...to a system of performance measurements that effectively communicate a powerful, forward-looking, strategic focus to the entire organization. This balanced concept allows an organization to evaluate its performance in different aspects other than financially acceptable balance sheets or income statements. Bibliography 1.) Atkinson A. A., Waterhouse, J.H., and Wells, R.B. (1997). â€Å"A Stakeholder Approach to Strategic Performance Measurement.† Sloan Management Review (Spring, 1997, pp25- 37): Cambridge. 2.) Kaplan, Robert S. and Norton, David P., (1992). â€Å"The Balanced Scorecard: Measures that Drive Performance.† Harvard Business Review (January-February 1992): 71-79. 3.) Kaplan, Robert S. and Norton, David P., (1996a). â€Å"Linking the Balanced Scorecard to Strategy.† California Management Review (Vol. 39 No.1, Fall, 1996): 53-77. 4.) Kaplan, Robert S. and Norton, David P., (1996b). â€Å"Using the Balanced Scorecard as a Strategic Management System.† Harvard Business Review (January-February 1996): 75- 85. 5.) 5.) Nickols, Fred (1999). â€Å"Reconciling and Integrating Stakeholder Needs and Requirements.† COG News (Spring 1999)

Hypotheses Of The Effects Of Wolf Predation :: essays research papers

Hypotheses of the Effects of Wolf Predation Abstract: This paper discusses four hypotheses to explain the effects of wolf predation on prey populations of large ungulates. The four proposed hypotheses examined are the predation limiting hypothesis, the predation regulating hypothesis, the predator pit hypothesis, and the stable limit cycle hypothesis. There is much research literature that discusses how these hypotheses can be used to interpret various data sets obtained from field studies. It was concluded that the predation limiting hypothesis fit most study cases, but that more research is necessary to account for multiple predator - multiple prey relationships. The effects of predation can have an enormous impact on the ecological organization and structure of communities. The processes of predation affect virtually every species to some degree or another. Predation can be defined as when members of one species eat (and/or kill) those of another species. The specific type of predation between wolves and large ungulates involves carnivores preying on herbivores. Predation can have many possible effects on the interrelations of populations. To draw any correlations between the effects of these predator-prey interactions requires studies of a long duration, and statistical analysis of large data sets representative of the populations as a whole. Predation could limit the prey distribution and decrease abundance. Such limitation may be desirable in the case of pest species, or undesirable to some individuals as with game animals or endangered species. Predation may also act as a major selective force. The effects of predator prey coevolution can explain many evolutionary adaptations in both predator and prey species. The effects of wolf predation on species of large ungulates have proven to be controversial and elusive. There have been many different models proposed to describe the processes operating on populations influenced by wolf predation. Some of the proposed mechanisms include the predation limiting hypothesis, the predation regulating hypothesis, the predator pit hypothesis, and the stable limit cycle hypothesis (Boutin 1992). The purpose of this paper is to assess the empirical data on population dynamics and attempt to determine if one of the four hypotheses is a better model of the effects of wolf predation on ungulate population densities. The predation limiting hypothesis proposes that predation is the primary factor that limits prey density. In this non- equilibrium model recurrent fluctuations occur in the prey population. This implies that the prey population does not return to some particular equilibrium after deviation. The predation limiting hypothesis involves a density independent mechanism. The mechanism might apply to one prey - one predator systems (Boutin 1992). This hypothesis predicts that losses of prey due to predation will be large enough to halt prey population

American Values in the Declaration of Independence Essay

In 1776, a semi-unified country signed one of the most important documents in history. Since then the nation has shown signs of how different the country was from 1776 to the present. The Declaration of Independence is based on the social contract theory of government and is focused on equality, freedom, and power. These values have been both supported and contradicted in American history (Jefferson, pg. 443). In the declaration, Jefferson states that â€Å"all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness† (Jefferson, pg. 443). This speaks directly to the humanist theory of social contract that was prevalent at the time. One of the greatest political philosophers of the time was a man named John Locke. His ideas on governance were that no government could be effective without the consent of the governed and that should a government ever abuse its power â€Å"they break their contract with the people and therefore no longer enjoy the consent of the governed† and it is the right of the people to overthrow it (O’Connor &Sabato, pg. 9). When Jefferson explained that â€Å"these united colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent states† (Jefferson, pg. 46), his intent was to make clear that they would no longer look to another nation for guidance and support; that America would be its own sovereign nation from that moment on. One of the most contradictory aspects of the Declaration of Independence was its stance on the equality of man. Jefferson speaks candidly about it but what he refrains from discussing is the institution of slavery. The inconsistency of the two ideas almost screams off the page. It is not simply a forgotten issue on Jefferson’s part. He knew well that slavery was a problem in a nation he was purporting to be filled with equal men. Unfortunately the resolution to that issue had not as yet made its presence known and the Founding Fathers simply left it for future generations to figure out. When Jefferson stated that the United States were to be free, it began a period of time where Americans would begin to decide just what it meant to be an American. Values would be adopted; a cultural identity far removed from that of Europe would be founded. America, while separating itself from Britain, still had to wrestle with the fact that the rest of the world thought them nothing more than degenerate barbarians who were bucking the control of their superiors. However, between the landing at Plymouth Rock and the Revolutionary War, those little colonies had grown apart from Great Britain. Not just in distance but in cultural values as well. Feudal Britain could not understand the democratic America and vice versa. The humanist theories of the autonomy of the human spirit had really taken root in America whereas in Britain and other parts of the world the ideas were little more than words since there were already monarchical governments in place. While it is true that America based many of its systems on British techniques, there’s no denying that the emphasis of power and control rest far more readily in the rights of the individual rather than the rights of the nation. Of course this is not to say that America doesn’t have a few skeletons in their closet. Americans still to this day value their freedom and the idea of self-governance, but there was a time in history when this was forgotten. Around the turn of the twentieth century America annexed parts of the Philippines. This imperialist-style aggression towards another sovereign nation seems to fly in the face of everything America was built on especially since the Philippines had just won their own independence from Spain (by practically following the playbook that America had written. ) Another way to look at it would be to observe how America interacts with nations and people that are under a different form of government than their own. In a time where independence is lacking in other countries, the United States government tries to export its qualities to other non-independent countries. Even though at one point in time the United States became free on its own from higher powers, now America is the higher power trying to enforce independence in other countries. Though the United States has good intentions, it is not difficult to understand how other nations could see America as imperialist. America doesn’t want to expand its territorial boundaries but it has no problem trying to inflict their style of government on other nations. The Declaration discusses how much power the United States will have by stating that the newly independent olonies will have â€Å"full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which Independent States may of right do† (Jefferson, pg. 446). Power is one value that anyone can appreciate. No matter what country a person is from, at one point in time they wanted power. To give a country the qualities that Jefferson has quoted, â€Å"levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce† (Jefferson, pg. 446) it gives power to any country. In history, we have encountered when having too much power can leave one person to make bad decisions. For example, Ex-President Clinton, after two terms in office he was being accused of having extra-marital sexual relations in the White House. Then he continued to publicly lie to the United States about the affair. Later he was impeached for perjury and obstruction of justice. This example shows someone who had so much power being the President of the United States that he thought he could get away with having an affair while he was in office. He will always be known for his impeachment. Though he had good qualities as a President, he obviously could not handle all the power that was given to him. It could be opined that the reason Bill Clinton was impeached, besides lying under oath, is that he went against a core American value that holds fidelity within the confines of a marriage to be nearly sacred. When he broke from that value, he broke the faith the American people had in him. In conclusion, the American values that necessitated the writing of the Declaration of Independence may have changed since it was written, but not by much. America is an autonomous land filled with people who have built a system of values and a cultural identity that is its own. No longer is Great Britain a threat and common wealth can be achieved easier. America is not perfect but it is unique. Where else on earth can people enjoy the freedoms that this nation affords its citizens? The values of independence and self-governance that brought the Declaration of Independence to life still remain a part of the social fabric. Granted, the people are not fighting against a foreign power anymore, but that same spirit that riled a nation to revolution still maintains its hold on the current system of government and keeps it in check so that this nation â€Å"of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from this earth†.

Free Essays on Analysis Of “A Good Man Is Hard To Find“

Analysis of â€Å"A Good Man is Hard to Find† The short story by Flannery O’Connor, â€Å"A Good Man is Hard to Find†, is about a family that takes a vacation to Florida and somehow along the way manages to get murdered by a man who calls himself â€Å"The Misfit†, and two of his friends. Flannery O’Connor’s story has many important elements, but what makes this story special is the combined use of character development and irony. The short story, â€Å"A Good Man is Hard to Find† by Flannery O’Connor was written in 1955 during a time when most people in small communities were very religious and followed the Christian faith very strictly. In the story, the grandmother and The Misfit briefly discuss religion, particularly about Jesus and the miracle of resurrection from the dead. O’Connor’s use of this religious belief appeals to the audience of the 1950’s in a way that puzzles the reader and creates a mysterious wonder of uncertainty for the antagonist of the story. With this character development, the grandmother makes a certain ironic mistake that causes The Misfit to think about the terrible things he has done. In the story The Misfit said, â€Å"Jesus was the only One that ever raised the dead,† The Misfit continued, â€Å"and He shouldn’t have done it. He thown everything off balance. If He did what He said, then its nothing for you to do but thow away everything and follow Him, and if He didn’t, then its nothing for you to do but enjoy the few minutes you got left the Wagers 2 best way you can- by killing somebody or burning down his house or doing some other meanness to him. The grandmother made the terrible mistake and said, â€Å"Maybe He didn’t raise the dead.† She sparks a fire of resentment and anger The Misfit has for all the bad things he has done. When he said, â€Å"I wasn’t there so I can’t say He didn’t.† The Misfit shows an emotional dought that maybe everything he ... Free Essays on Analysis Of â€Å"A Good Man Is Hard To Findâ€Å" Free Essays on Analysis Of â€Å"A Good Man Is Hard To Findâ€Å" Analysis of â€Å"A Good Man is Hard to Find† The short story by Flannery O’Connor, â€Å"A Good Man is Hard to Find†, is about a family that takes a vacation to Florida and somehow along the way manages to get murdered by a man who calls himself â€Å"The Misfit†, and two of his friends. Flannery O’Connor’s story has many important elements, but what makes this story special is the combined use of character development and irony. The short story, â€Å"A Good Man is Hard to Find† by Flannery O’Connor was written in 1955 during a time when most people in small communities were very religious and followed the Christian faith very strictly. In the story, the grandmother and The Misfit briefly discuss religion, particularly about Jesus and the miracle of resurrection from the dead. O’Connor’s use of this religious belief appeals to the audience of the 1950’s in a way that puzzles the reader and creates a mysterious wonder of uncertainty for the antagonist of the story. With this character development, the grandmother makes a certain ironic mistake that causes The Misfit to think about the terrible things he has done. In the story The Misfit said, â€Å"Jesus was the only One that ever raised the dead,† The Misfit continued, â€Å"and He shouldn’t have done it. He thown everything off balance. If He did what He said, then its nothing for you to do but thow away everything and follow Him, and if He didn’t, then its nothing for you to do but enjoy the few minutes you got left the Wagers 2 best way you can- by killing somebody or burning down his house or doing some other meanness to him. The grandmother made the terrible mistake and said, â€Å"Maybe He didn’t raise the dead.† She sparks a fire of resentment and anger The Misfit has for all the bad things he has done. When he said, â€Å"I wasn’t there so I can’t say He didn’t.† The Misfit shows an emotional dought that maybe everything he ...

Animal Testing

Animal Testing Stroll down the health and beauty aisles of your local grocery store and you are likely to see a plethora of products you use on a daily basis. From shampoos to hair sprays and styling gels, concealers to nail polish removers, these are all products that aid us when it comes to our outer beauty. When deciding upon which shampoo to purchase, what goes into your decision making process? Is it the scent of the shampoo? How well the product cleans your hair and how it feels afterwards? Or do you even take into consideration whether it would irritate your scalp? What many do not take into consideration, is whether or not the product has been tested on animals. Envisioning a laboratory in which rabbits are bleeding as a result of poisonous chemicals being injected into their skin is not a pleasant thing to think about when buying health and beauty products, but it's a reality.Animal,Porkey Pig, Lobund-WistarAnimal experimentation, also known as vivisection in the animal rights community, h as become an accepted practice of cosmetic manufacturers across the globe and has stirred many ethical debates. These debates cause us to rethink the question: "Should animals continue to be used for scientific or commercial testing?"To animal activists, the answer is clear: absolutely not, animal testing is cruel and inhumane. According to the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), millions of cats, dogs, mice, primates, rats, rabbits, and other animals are locked away in laboratories across the country for the sole purpose of experimentation. These creatures live out the rest of their lives locked away in cages, which are stacked one on top of another in a plain cold room. Imagine spending the remainder of your life locked behind bars in a jail cell or confined to a hospital...

Funny Quotes About Women

Funny Quotes About Women Women are not easy to understand, at least according to the famous authors, poets,  entertainers, and comedians who have written on the nature of women. None of them claim to fully fathom the female mind. Find out what they really think of these  funny quotes about women - some written by men, some by women. Read wisecracks about a womans nature that make most women exclaim, Whats all the fuss about? But men say, How true, how true! Will Rogers There are two theories to arguing with a woman. Neither works. Robert Heinlein Women and cats will do as they please, and men and dogs should relax and get used to the idea. Nancy Reagan A woman is like a tea bag. She only knows her strength when put in hot water. Sigmund Freud Despite my thirty years of research into the woman soul, I have not yet been able to answer the great question that has never been answered: What does a woman want? Margaret Mead I do not believe in using women in  combat  because females are too fierce. Aristotle If women didnt exist, all the money in the world would have no meaning. James Thurber I hate women because they always know where things are. Malcolm de Chazal A woman knows how to keep quiet when she is in the right, whereas a man when he is in the right, will keep on talking. Freya Stark The great and almost only comfort about being a woman is that one can always pretend to be more stupid than one is and no one is surprised. Gloria Steinem Someone once asked me why women dont gamble as much as men do and I gave the commonsensical reply that we dont have as much money. That was a true but incomplete answer. In fact, womens total instinct for gambling is satisfied by marriage. Some of us are becoming the men we wanted to marry. Dave Barry Scientists now believe that the primary biological function of breasts is to make men stupid. Joseph Conrad Being a woman is a terribly difficult task since it consists principally in dealing with men. Ogden Nash I have an idea that the phrase weaker sex was coined by some woman to disarm some man she was preparing to overwhelm. Virginia Woolf For most of history, Anonymous was a woman. Charlotte Whitton Whatever women do they must do twice as well as men to be thought half as good. Luckily this is not difficult. Chris Rock There are only three things women need in life: food, water, and compliments. Mae West Good girls go to heaven. Bad girls go everywhere. Mike Vanatta Woman arent confusing. Theyre a Sudoku-Jenga puzzle surrounded by Rubiks cubes strapped to a terrorist screaming at you in another language. Ann Landers Women complain about sex more often than men. Their gripes fall into two major categories: (1) Not Enough. (2) Too Much. Harry Haenigsen Feminine intuition is a fiction and a fraud. It is nonsensical, illogical, emotional, ridiculous and practically foolproo..

Learning Theories for Teachers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Learning Theories for Teachers - Essay Example The science of psychology focuses its study area on the mind of the individual, often drawing on cognitive, emotional and behavioral responses to measure and determine the mind's structures and functions. It is generally conceded that many human behaviors are learnt, and so psychologists have sought to identify a learning theory that explains learning processes. Education professionals, in turn, draw on this knowledge base to inform and provide ideal learning conditions for students. The text presents contemporary learning theories as emphasizing cognitive, socio-emotional and physical aspects of learning across the lifespan. This paper aims to present a review of the major learning theories used for teaching in the 21st century, especially noting the advantages of a cognitive-construcitonist approach. Firstly, the two major families of learning theory as conceived by Bigge and Shermis shall be presented. The specific theories of Skinner, Vygotsky, and Brunner shall be detailed. Secondly, a conclusion shall synthesize the main points of this paper, and provide support for education professionals to incorporate cognitive-interactionist theories into their classrooms. Bigge and Shermis identify the two major learning theories of relevance to current education as being the behaviorist and the cognitivist schools of thought. The behaviorists focus on observable behavior and reduced the learning experience to a process of stimulus and response. This psychology approach to learning was adopted in the USA during the early 1900s, when science and technology were experiencing a time of accelerated growth. Hence, the concept of studying measurable, objective, human behaviors aligned with current values of a modernized society embracing standardized production methods. For the extreme behaviorist, all human behavior can be understood through the processes of conditioning, these being classical and operant in form.An example of classical conditioning is Pavlov's dog that 'learns' to salivate when it hears a bell. B. F. Skinner is famous for his development of the principles of operant conditioning, that is, that any behavior is shaped by the consequences t hat follow it. Skinner pointed out that a positive, negative or neutral consequence following a behavior influenced whether a particular behavior was repeated in the future, or if it was not. So, a person learns new behaviors, or is able to modify existing behaviors, as a function of environmental events that either reward or punish that behavior. In this way, Skinner's learning theory is a move away from the traditional behaviorist approach of stimulus and response, as he differentiated between types of responses. When a response was elicited by a known stimulus is considered to be associated with the known stimulus. Alternatively, responses that do not require a specific stimulus, which he termed operants, are independent of the stimulus. Skinner emphasized that it was the operant response that could be strengthened or weakened by use of personal, social or environmental rewards or punishments respectively.Skinner's principles advocated the idea that learning could be 'programmed, ' which fit

I Have a Dream - Critical Rhetorical Analysis Essay

I Have a Dream - Critical Rhetorical Analysis - Essay Example The speech was part of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom and the speech refers to these themes time and again. The march was designed to put greater pressure on the Kennedy administration in order to advance civil rights legislation within Congress. (Carson) Evidence suggests that the President was worried that if a large crowd did not appear for the march then the civil rights drive in Congress might be affected negatively. There was a dire need to bring in large numbers to prove the unequivocal support for the civil rights movement. The organisers of the march were able to attract large numbers but this presented unique challenges. There were chances that the march might turn into a violent mob based demonstration. Dr. King dealt with this possibility in his speech by persuading the audience that freedom was around the corner and that violence was not going to get them anywhere. Subsequent events proved the efficacy of King’s words. The real contention behind the speech was a collective desire to surmount racial injustice and to integrate society on a commonly shared identity. The Black Civil Rights Movement had sparked off a few years ago. Momentum had been building and some of the momentum had turned to violence. Scores of mistreated African Americans were learning to organise themselves into an effective political instrument. Protests to this effect were increasing and bore testimony to the increasing political coherence of the African American community. King and other visionary leaders such as JFK knew that the country was fast becoming a powder keg. There was a dire need to vent the building pressure of social hate and injustice. This was only possible if legislation to this effect ensured the rights of all American citizens as equal. This speech was effectively aimed at encouraging further positive action on the part of African Americans to pressurise the legislators for legislation and to ensure that violence did not mar the face of the movement. Notably, Martin Luther King employed his skills as a Baptist minister and his intellect as a history aficionado to deliver multiple messages effectively. Rhetorical Devices Employed in â€Å"I Have A Dream† Martin Luther King’s speech is distinct because of the various rhetorical devices it utilises. Most of the rhetorical devices used in this speech are well balanced and connected to each other. The more notable rhetorical techniques utilised to create this speech are: phrases have been emphasized through repetition at the start of sentences; specific key words have been repeated throughout the speech; appropriate quotations and allusions are utilised; concrete examples are presented in order to back up arguments; metaphors have been utilised to highlight contrasting concepts. These major techniques are briefly discussed below to analyse the speech within rhetorical perspectives. Anaphora Anaphora refers to the repetition of words at the start of neighbo uring clauses and is one of the commonest rhetorical devices used. The repetition of words tends to create a discernable pattern for the audience. In effect the audience can connect better to the spoken words because of the certain predictability offered by repeating words.

Policing and Crime Reduction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Policing and Crime Reduction - Essay Example It became necessary for the police force to use criminal intelligence the crime analysts to find out the criminals and all information about them to solve the problem. Both the models have got its own distinctive features and the present essay is intended to analyse these features in an effort to see whether both the models are compatible with each other. There was wide spread criticism of the way of policing adopted through 1970's to 1980. During this period policing was more concentrated on crimes and paid little attention to the problems that created a situation for such cases. Their activities were mainly divided into two. Preventive patrol and patrol in response to emergency calls. These activities could not bring crime control. Police was using random patrol, follow up of criminal investigations and sudden actions as the basis of their investigation. It was found that such a system was less efficient because there were many community problems, which did not have a criminal background and arrests and prosecutions did not solve most of the problems. The number of arrests did not increase as the crime increased, mainly because of the lack of infrastructure to keep and prosecute these people. Moreover, it was felt that most of the community problems without a criminal nature could be solved without any arrest through mere police in volvement to address those problems. According to Goldstein, the police were more concentrated on their own internal politics and management and they were little concerned about their actual duties (Goldstein, 1979). He initiated a change in the usual policing by urging them to concentrate on the problems that lead to most of the crimes and to solve these problems so as to take out crime from its roots. He called it problem-oriented policing and this drive was internationally accepted and has been very effective in crime control (Weisburd et. al., 2007). Problem oriented policing involves analysis of similar incidents by the crime analysts as well as experienced police officials in a effort to understand something new from these problems so as to device strategy to deal with those problems (Weisburd et. al., 2007). The system has a preventive nature, which incorporates the use of public and private agencies and community for crime reduction or its prevention. Once a strategy is developed it would be implemented and evaluated and this would be reported so that it would form the basis for developing a pool of knowledge that would help police in their profession (Goldstein, 2001). So there would not be any secrecy in dealing with each and every case. The problems would be openly discussed and the strategy developed would be published in the community. Cooperation of community and other government agencies were sought to implement strategies and to solve the problems so as to reduce incidents of crimes. Based on this idea Eck And Spelman (1987) developed SARA model of problem oriented policing. SARA denoted four steps in its operation namely, Scanning, Analysis, Response and Assessment. Scanning in the process in which police identify problems in their area that are leading to crimes. The next step "Analysis" involves, analysis of these problems so

Investing in Human Assets Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Investing in Human Assets - Essay Example It might be possible only if proper coordination within the employees of the organization might be seen resulting in the prospects of the firm. This is because; as human resource or employees act as the prime pillars of any organization so it is duty of the management to offer all types of basic facilities to them in order to make them happy and motivated towards work. Only then, the productivity of the organization might increase resulting in amplification of the profit margin and revenue among others. Therefore, it might be clearly stated that the productivity and image of the organization entirely depends on the hands of the human resource and so proper investment over human resource is essential. In this essay, the importance of investing in human resource of the organization is highlighted along with this the significant impact of RBV in making such investments in the fields of HR is also focused. Side by side, the ways by which RBV supports the competitive advantage of the orga nization. Along with five recommendations are also provided to make the implementation program successful in all regards. Importance of the Organization in Making Significant Investments in HR Organization is an association or group composed of employees of varied skills and talents. They are collectively recognized as the human resource of the organization. Human resource is the main part of an organization without which it might not function effectively. This is because it is the employees or the human resource who work for the betterment of the organization thereby enhancing its profit margin and revenues in the market among others. Other than this, the brand image and reputation of the organization is also due to the introduction of varied types of innovative products or services by the employees of the organization. Due to these products or services a large array of customers gets attracted towards it resulting in enhancement of the entire ROI. Thus it is also a duty of the org anizational management to work for the benefit of the employees to make them happy and retain them for a longer period of time. Thus it is a vice-versa process and if one side goes wrong then the entire process might fail (Wright, 1993). Each and every organizational management is commitment to make significant investment in enhancing the interior skills and talents by organizing varied types of training programs. This might prove effective for the employees in improving their job skills and abilities resulting in amplification of their performance level as well as productivity of the organization. It might also improve the dedication level and devotion towards their work resulting in amplification of organizational productivity and revenues (Mello, 2011). Apart from this, proper communication is also essential to improve organizational effectiveness and image in the market with the help of an efficient leader or manager. If the manager very easily mingles with the employees through interpersonal relationship and tries to understand their views and ideas regarding any plan or program then the entire revenue invested in recruiting him might become effective. This might reduce the risks of turnover rates along with the fear to lose good performers of the organizat

Government and Market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Government and Market - Essay Example Infrastructure is a very vital cog of any country, and hence takes a supremely significant position in the government's perception. Now, Rostow, who was a specialist in this field has made note and brought to light the fact that the inability of the governments to create infrastructure was one of the major road blocks that were faced during the process of modernization in Europe during the 19th century. In his argument, he says that the "creation of preconditions for take-off was largely a matter of building social overhead capital". This comes in line with the generally accepted argument that the cost of infrastructure or the social overhead capital compliments the industrial production process as this facilitates the transfer of goods, which leads to the creation of mobilization of markets on a national and international level. Haber, another esteemed expert in this field, has further developed the importance of infrastructural support in his arguments based on the case study of Me xico. Here, he offers the opinion that Mexico was unable to solve the problem of surplus capacity which it was facing in the 1980s by exporting goods to different countries around the world. All of this, he attributes to the lack of infrastructural support that was present in the country at that point in time. He cites Avisador Comercial de Havana which attributes this problem related to the exorbitant costs of transportation: "How, then, can merchandise be shipped to the coast at an advantageous price How can they [Mexican manufacturers] compete in foreign marketsif within their own borders they have incredibly high freight rates" [1] [5] In recent times, economic analysts have argued that the major difference between the growth differentials of different countries is infrastructure as highlighted by the case on India and China. Due to the importance infrastructure plays in the workings of a country and its non-excludable and unrivalled nature has further substantiated the claim for the need of governmental intervention to facilitate and hasten industrial growth in the country. On face value, one can see that this notion is somewhat not contestable in nature in that not many can refute the claim that has been put forward; however, some economists have also offered the notion of a private sector backed infrastructural growth. This notion certainly has immense promise in theory as this would basically remove the role of the government from this entire workup and would subsequently move the entire mechanisms onto a free market which would be highly appreciated in light of the concept at hand. However, that certainly doe s not appear to be a distinct possibility at the current point in time which is why infrastructural support has been ascribed to governments to this day and age. The rationale behind this is suggestions like the one offered are more likely to fail in the developing countries as private sector led infrastructural growth needs immensely advanced institutional or technological support in order to create and sustain excludable and rivaling properties. Due to this, infrastructure would remain severely under protected as well as remain under produced which would be due to the large number of externalities that cannot

Investing in Human Assets Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Investing in Human Assets - Essay Example It might be possible only if proper coordination within the employees of the organization might be seen resulting in the prospects of the firm. This is because; as human resource or employees act as the prime pillars of any organization so it is duty of the management to offer all types of basic facilities to them in order to make them happy and motivated towards work. Only then, the productivity of the organization might increase resulting in amplification of the profit margin and revenue among others. Therefore, it might be clearly stated that the productivity and image of the organization entirely depends on the hands of the human resource and so proper investment over human resource is essential. In this essay, the importance of investing in human resource of the organization is highlighted along with this the significant impact of RBV in making such investments in the fields of HR is also focused. Side by side, the ways by which RBV supports the competitive advantage of the orga nization. Along with five recommendations are also provided to make the implementation program successful in all regards. Importance of the Organization in Making Significant Investments in HR Organization is an association or group composed of employees of varied skills and talents. They are collectively recognized as the human resource of the organization. Human resource is the main part of an organization without which it might not function effectively. This is because it is the employees or the human resource who work for the betterment of the organization thereby enhancing its profit margin and revenues in the market among others. Other than this, the brand image and reputation of the organization is also due to the introduction of varied types of innovative products or services by the employees of the organization. Due to these products or services a large array of customers gets attracted towards it resulting in enhancement of the entire ROI. Thus it is also a duty of the org anizational management to work for the benefit of the employees to make them happy and retain them for a longer period of time. Thus it is a vice-versa process and if one side goes wrong then the entire process might fail (Wright, 1993). Each and every organizational management is commitment to make significant investment in enhancing the interior skills and talents by organizing varied types of training programs. This might prove effective for the employees in improving their job skills and abilities resulting in amplification of their performance level as well as productivity of the organization. It might also improve the dedication level and devotion towards their work resulting in amplification of organizational productivity and revenues (Mello, 2011). Apart from this, proper communication is also essential to improve organizational effectiveness and image in the market with the help of an efficient leader or manager. If the manager very easily mingles with the employees through interpersonal relationship and tries to understand their views and ideas regarding any plan or program then the entire revenue invested in recruiting him might become effective. This might reduce the risks of turnover rates along with the fear to lose good performers of the organizat

International Trade Logistics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

International Trade Logistics - Essay Example If it is the case of recycling, the process includes what is beyond the final consumer. The international management of logistics involves the movements of goods, services and people also. It depends on the nature of transport. For example, in case of airlines, the movement of people dictates the movement of aircraft and thus the movement of cargo. The movement of the people beyond the borders in search of employment also can be termed as a part of international logistics. This is because they are the human resource for the companies and they move towards the company. Yet times not only the goods, even people move towards the goods. This also can be considered as logistics operation. If the borders of any two nations are peaceful, the people cross the border in search of employment, livelihood and bargains that are unavailable at home. 1 One cannot define to pin point logistics or its systems. At present the logistics is seen as the activities that facilitate the different cycles in the supply chain. They are customer order cycle, the replenishment cycle, the manufacturing cycle, and the procurement cycle. The international logistics involves the movement across the borders of different countries. Naturally the movements between any two countries are complex in nature when compared to domestic movements. These movements when involve ships need to move through port and being at sea is time consuming. Some companies and people prefer this because this is the cheapest mode of transport. When the time taken for the transport is more, the differences between the time zones will make the movements a bit complex. The documentation required for the international shipping adds to the complex nature of the movements through ships. The documentation required for international movement involves the need of employment of experts regarding the documentation. This is due to the inventory in transit management involved in the transportation. The inventory in place increases the information management complexity and demands of international logistics. The company involved in international business should have an international logistics department that is responsible for the management of communications. The department will plan for the communications, control of the logistics activities. 2 3. International Transportation and Trade Facilitation The international transportation and trade facilitation is facing many challenges due to the explosive growth in trade between the nations. As a result the transportation is being faster and flexible to facilitate trade. This involves the fast moving container ships and improved container handling practices along with intermodal systems. This resulted in privatization of transport and information industries and this is a need for the interna

Historical Terms Essay Example for Free

Historical Terms Essay The Agricultural Revolution was also known as the Neolithic Revolution which occurred around roughly 10,000 B. C. It was a revolution that involved the transformation hunting-gathering societies into establishing permanent settlements and resort to agriculture and domestication. Hence, it initiated the development of civilization. The Cuneiform was probably the earliest form of writing upon which the Sumerians established in the Mesopotamian area, as their civilization started to proliferate, around 3000 B. C. It was said to have lasted for a few thousand years and while its use proliferated, the number of characters that it contained gradually dwindled to a more manageable standard. The Ziggurat was a temple tower which the Sumerians established that existed during Ancient Mesopotamia—almost quite similar to the temples of Ancient America. There were established monuments for the local regions of Ancient Mesopotamia. It was basically a pyramidal structure with a top flat—a platform that served as a shrine or temple. It was elevated to several levels (around two to seven tiers as suggested). The Code of Hammurabi was an ancient law-code (set of society’s rules) which was created in Babylon around 1800-1700 B. C. It was also enacted by Babylon’s sixth king, Hammurabi, upon which the code’s name was derived from. It is just one of the several set of fundamental laws found in the Near East to Middle East—area of Ancient Mesopotamia. Moses is a well-known biblical figure that exists in an array of religions. He was a Hebrew prophet who delivered the Hebrews from Egyptian Slavery and towards the Promised Land which was Israel; although, it was said that he died before he reached Israel. He was well-known for the ten plagues of Egypt that forced the Pharaoh—his stepbrother—into freeing the Hebrews. He was later known for the Ten Commandments. Amenhotep IV was the 10th or 11th Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, reigning around 1300 B. C. It was suggested that he reigned around 1353 to 1336 B. C. He was also known as Akhenaten. In relation to his name, he was noted to have obliged the population into accepting monotheism, the worship of Aten. He was not really the heir to the throne, at least not until his older brother’s (Crown Prince Thutmose) death. Hatshepsut was the fifth pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, reigning from 1479 to 1458 B. C. She was known as the longest ruling female pharaoh of Egypt; although, it was known in some historic sources that her reign was co-regent and that it was entailed in the reign of Thutmose III. Her most notable achievement was probably the establishment of trade networks in Egypt which apparently brought in wealth for the 18th Dynasty. Zoroastrianism is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of Zoroaster or Zarathustra, which can be traced in ancient Persia. It is considered as one of the world’s first monotheistic faith, as it exalted Ahura Mazda.. It was believed that many concepts of the three major religions were derived from the scriptures of Zoroastrianism; one of which is the belief on a universal God. Manichaeism was considered as one of the major Gnostic religions of ancient Persia. It said to have existed from the third to the seventh centuries, from as far as China to the Roman Empire. It received prosecutions from other religious cultures such as Buddhism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism. Its main prophet was Mani who lived in Babylon. Its major concept described the struggle between light and darkness (good and evil). Cyrus the Great was a Persian King who established the Persian Empire under the Achaemenid dynasty, reigning from around 600 to 530 B. C. He started to build his empire by first fighting the Median Empire, then the Lydian Empire, and finally the Neo-Babylonian Empire. He also led his armies into Central Asia and died in a battle against the Scythians before reaching Egypt. It was mentioned that he respected the cultures of the lands he conquered. Hence, this made him a successful emperor to the eyes of his people. Herodotus was a Greek historian who lived around the fifth century B. C. In the Western world, he was known as the father of history. He was the first to apply systematic collection of evidences and data. He usually writes about information regarding the nature of the world and the different sciences, as he would inform people in a narrative way. Sophocles lived from 496 to 406 B. C. and was notably an ancient Greek Tragedian. Luckily, he was one of those Tragedians whose work survived long enough for the modern world to see. His most famous works, which concerned Oedipus and Antigone, have been tackled in schools worldwide. He was also the most-awarded playwright in Athens. Hippocrates lived from 460 to 370 B. C. He was known as one of the most astounding figures of Medicine. He was also known as the Father of Medicine, having established the Hippocratic School of medicine that apparently revolutionized Ancient Greek medicine, which enabled medicine to become a known and necessary profession. The Persian Wars is a series of a Greco-Persian conflicts that arose in 499 B. C. , lasting until around 448 B. C. It was basically the two Persian invasions of Greece which the Greek Alliance successfully repelled. It defined Greek dominance over the Persians. Homer was an Ancient Greek writer that created the epic poems, Illiad and Odyssey. His existence remained controversial as it was yet to be discovered. However, many believed that he existed during the time of the Trojan War, around 1194 to 1184 B. C. , which was the core setting of Illiad. Sophists were basically Ancient Greek teachers of writing, speech, and rhetoric that traveled across the country during the fifth century B. C. A growing demand for education during this century paved the way to the establishment of a class of teachers and professionals that scattered all over Greece in order to educate people. Socrates was a well-known Classical Greek Philosopher that lived from 469 to 399 B. C. He was known to be one of the founders of Western Philosophy, especially his contributions to the field of ethics; through his most comprehensive accounts, the Plato’s dialogues. He was put to trial and executed by forcing him to drink poison and walking around the city. Sparta was a Greek city-state, renowned for its military dominance over its region in Greece. It was established as the rival of the Athenians—during the Peloponnesian war. As a requirement of the governing body, all Spartan men were full-time soldiers, especially during the time of War. Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher that lived from 384 to 322 B. C. He was a student of Plato, who later on became the teacher of Alexander the Great of Macedonia. He was also known as one of the Greek philosophers that established the foundations of Western Philosophy (other than Plato and Socrates). Galen of Pergamum was a Roman physician and apparently a Greek philosopher that lived from 129 to 200 A. D. He was known to be the most accomplished physician during the Roman era. His philosophies and theories influenced and dominated much of Western Medical Science. Archimedes was a Greek inventor that lived during 287 to 212 B. C. , known for his theories and foundations on hydrostatics. He was also regarded for his inventions which included an array of siege engines and equipments, and the screw pump, later known as the Archimedes screw. Pax Romana, also known as Pax Augusta, was a long period of relative peace that Rome experienced during the first and second centuries A. D, around 27 B. C. to 180 A. D. It was proclaimed by Caesar Augustus, and it suggested that Rome would go under a period of peace and non-expansion; with generals being recalled after their victories. It met its end at the death of Marcus Aurelius. Diocletian was the emperor of Roman from 284 to 305 A. D. The end of the third century crisis in Rome was signaled by the ascension of Diocletian to the seat of power. He refurbished the empire by separating and enlarging the empire’s civil and military services, assigning three other leaders to control different regions. This was probably the largest and most bureaucratic government in Roman history. Virgil was a classical Roman poet who lived during 70 to 19 B. C. He was known for his three major works: the Bucolics, the Georgics, and the Aeneid—which became Rome’s national epic. Born to a farmer who later lost their land to soldiers, he engaged in farm work and studied poetry. His first two major works were said to have been influenced by rural life. Claudius Ptolemaeus was a Greco-Roman astronomer who lived from 90 to 168 A. D, living in Egypt which was under Roman control. He was an author of several discourses including the Almagest (astronomical discourse), the Geography (knowledge of Greco-Roman world), and Apolotelesmatika (astrological discourse). Titus Lucretius Carus was a Roman Philosopher-poet who lived around 99 to 55 B. C. Although not much was known of him, he was renowned for his major epic Philosophical poem known as De rerum natura, or translated as On the Nature of Things. He dedicated this to his friend, Gaius Memmius. It was said that the poem’s purpose was to free Gaius’ mind of superstition, as well as the fear of death. Octavian was the successor of Gaius Julius Caesar, after the latter was brutally murdered. He ruled from 27 B. C to 14 A. D. wherein he died. He became the first emperor of the Roman Empire, after it was formally established that a sole person would rule the Republic in accordance with the Senate. His rule also initiated the enactment of Pax Romana. Peter was the proclaimed leader of the early Christian church and was one of the apostles of Jesus Christ. He was a simple fisherman that Jesus assigned to take up a leadership role amongst the other disciples and apostles. At the time of Nero, the Christians were prosecuted and with him being the first pope of Christianity, he was nailed to the cross facing downwards and burned in Rome. Paul was a Hellenistic Jew and was referred to as the Apostle to the gentiles. His conversion took place on his way to Damascus when he envisioned a resurrected Jesus Christ, which later on temporarily blinded him. Unlike the rest of Jesus’ apostles, Paul only saw Jesus Christ through his visions and was unfortunate to have not known him in person. Like Peter, he was executed by Nero through beheading. The New Testament is the second major division of the bible wherein the story of Jesus Christ can be read. It contained the gospels upon which shared the life of Jesus Christ and the proliferation of the Christian church. It also contained the book of revelations which was the apocalyptic prophecy. Constantine I, also known as Constantine the Great, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 306 up to his death on 337 A. D. He experienced his conversion into Christianity on the battlefield. With him as a Christian convert, he reversed the prosecutions laid out by his predecessors and established the Edict of Milan in 313 A. D. , which stated religious toleration throughout the Roman empire. St. Augustine of Hippo was a philosopher and a theologian, as well as the Bishop of Hippo Regius, who lived around 354 to 430 A. D. He was born in Thagaste. He was also regarded as one of the most important Christian figures who helped in the proliferation of Christianity. His thoughts influenced the medieval worldview, the medieval Christian church. The Arians were the followers of a religion called Arianism which was established in 250-336 A. D. by a Christian priest known as Arius. Arians were branded as heretics by the Christian church, thus leading to their execution or excommunication. However, the religion and its followers still continued onwards through the medieval ages. The Justinian Code was summoned by Emperor Justinian himself and his desire to create a single set of laws, or â€Å"code,† which contained the different laws enacted by past emperors from the reign of Hadrian up to his rule. The older laws and codex were updated to fit the standards of Emperor Justinian’s reign. The first part of the law was completed on 529 A. D. Byzantium, known today as Istanbul, was an ancient Greek city established by Greek colonists, naming it after King Byzas. The name was actually Latinized from Byzantion. It became the capital of the Byzantine Empire, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and renamed to Constantinople. Later on, the Ottomans laid siege of Constantinople and took over the city. It was then changed to Istanbul when Turkey was established. The Koran is the most important text of Islam; much like the Christian bible. It was believed to be a book of divine guidance for mankind to follow. It was mentioned that the Koran was revealed to the prophet Muhammad by Jibril (an Islam version of Gabriel). The Koran was also believed to have been written by Muhammad and his followers, through the transcription oral transmissions. It was compiled in 633 A. D. and was standardized in 653 A. D. under the Islamic Empire. The Hagia Sophia was a mosque but later turned into a Museum which can be found in the city of Istanbul in Turkey. It was highly considered as the epitome of Byzantine architecture, as it was established as a patriarchal basilica at that time. For nearly a thousand years, it was considered as the largest cathedral in the world. When the Ottomans conquered Constantinople, it was converted into a mosque. Theodora was the empress of the Byzantine Empire during the sixth century A. D. and the wife of Emperor Justinian I as the emperor of the Byzantine Empire. She was regarded as a saint of the Orthodox Church. She was also known as the most influential woman in the history of Byzantine. Feudalism was an established political system during the medieval ages in Europe, as well as the rest of the world. Three key elements revolve around Feudalism: lords, vassals, and fiefs. The Lords control the land and provide protection for it. The vassals establish a contract with the controlling monarch, ensuring the protection of the land and his property. The fiefs are profitable lands that could gain revenue for the kingdom. Charlemagne was the established King of the Franks who reigned from 768 A. D. up to his death in 814 A. D. He united the Frankish kingdoms and expanded into Western and Central Europe, establishing an empire. Later on, he conquered Italy and was crowned by Pope Leo III as Imperator Augustus, and became a rival of the Byzantine Emperor sitting on Constantinople. During his reign, the empire experienced Carolingian Renaissance which was the revival of art, culture, and religion through the medium of the Church. Alcuin of York lived from 735 to 804 A. D. in York, Northumbria. At the request of Charlemagne, he became a teacher in the Carolingian court, which focused on the revitalization of art, culture, and religion through the medium of the Church. He composed many theological doctrines, as well as a notable number of literary works like poems. He was inducted as the abbot of Saint Martin’s at Tours in 796 A. D. , until his death. Clovis I was the first king of the Franks brought Christianity to the Franks and aimed to unite the Frankish kingdoms under one ruler. Instead of remaining as an Arian Christian which was very common to the Germanic tribes, he converted to Catholic Christianity and brought this to his people. He was baptized near Rheims wherein the succeeding kings would be crowned as King of France. Serfs were people belonging to the lowest class in the feudal system of medieval Europe which was Serfdom. Basically, they were slaves to serf lords and were tasked to till the lands. They had no freedom and only had barely enough to feed themselves. They do not own the lands they till. Rollo was the first ruler of the Viking principality in Northern France, later known as Normandy. He lived from 860 to 932 A. D. He invaded France in 885 A. D. , and was considered as one of Sigfred’s Viking Fleet’s minor leaders. He was defeated by King Charles the small of France and later gave him the northern area of France with the condition that he would defend the French Kingdom from other Viking raiders. The Magna Carta is an English charter that was issued in 1215 A. D. It gave noblemen certain rights. It also required people to respect legal procedures, and accept that the person’s freedom could be dully bound by law. It also protected the King’s subjects from unlawful imprisonment. Basically, it was made by noblemen to somewhat limit the powers of the King, in order to avoid Tyranny over the kingdom. William the Conqueror or William I was the King of England from 1066 up to his death in 1087 A. D. He was known as William the Bastard because of his illegitimate birth. Along with his men, he fought against the English at the Battle of Hastings and won. As King, he made a lot of major reforms in the English administrative system.

Super Sensitive Intruder Alarm

Super Sensitive Intruder Alarm In the project first I will have do research for three or more circuit which have at least three active components. I will do the research by using the internet, books, magazines etc. After the research I will choose the circuit which I think is simple and easy for me to do my project on. I will do further research on the chosen circuit to understands how it works and how the components work. So when I start to making the project I will be able to deal with the faults if I find any in the circuit. Circuit 1 Fire alarm This circuit is used is used when a fire occurs. The circuit relies on the smoke produced in the event of fire. The light which falls on LRD decreases when the smoke passes between bulb and LDR. This increases the resistance of the LDR and the voltage increases at the base of transistor. Then the supply to COB is complete to set off the alarm. The sensitivity of the circuit is the distance between bulb LDR and it can also be preset setting of VR1. Reference: http://english.cxem.net/home/home36.php Circuit 2 Fire alarm The 555 timer (IC1) is an oscillator at audio frequency which is configured to run freely. The T1 and T2 (transistors) build IC1 value. The pin 3 of IC1 is couples to the base of transistor, which makes the speaker to make the alarm go off. The thermistor is the key to the alarm. Also when the resistance is low and the temperature is high the alarm will sound. The frequency of NE555 depends on the values of resistances R5 and R6 and capacitance C2. The circuit can be powered from a 6V battery or a 6V power supply. The thermistor can be mounted on a heat resistant material like mica to prevent it from damage due to excessive heat. The LED acts as an indication when the power supply is switched ON. Reference: http://www.circuitstoday.com/2008/04/30 Circuit 3 super sensitive intruder alarm In this circuit the alarm will set off when the shadow of an intruder passing few meters nearby the circuit is enough to trigger the alarm. IC2 uA 741 is wired as sensitive comparator; its set point is by R6 and R7. The voltage divide by LDR and R9 is given at non inverting pin of IC2. When there is an intruder near by or close to the LDR the shadow will make the resistance to increase. In that case the voltages at the inputs of comparator will be different and the out put of IC2 will be low. There fore the Q1 will turn on. This makes a negative going pulse to trigger the IC1 which is wired as a mono-stable multi-vibrator. The out put of IC1 will be amplified by Q2 (SL 100) to produce alarm. The LDR can be housed in a dark tube to increase sensitivity. The sensitivity is very important here. If you cannot adjust the required sensitivity properly, use one LOW resistance (~1K) POT in series with R9 for fine adjustment. Reference: http://www.circuitstoday.com/super-sensitive-intruder-alarm Choosing circuit: The circuits have done research on are very simple and interesting. The circuit I am going to do for my project is the intruder alarm circuit. The components in the circuit are simple and I have used them in the past. I understand how the components work and how the components behave so it will be easy for me to make the circuit. I can also make the other two circuits but they are not as simple as the intruder alarm circuit and they have components which havent used before. Components list LABEL COMPONENTS QUANTITY R1, R2, R3 R5 1k ohm resistors 4 R4 1M resistor 1 R6 R7 10 k ohm resistors 2 R8 LDR 1 R9 47k potential meter 1 D1 LED 1 IC2 Operational amplifier uA741 1 IC1 555 timer 1 Q1 PNP transistor BC 157 1 Q2 NPN transistor SL100 1 C1 Capacitor 0.01 uF 1 C2 Capacitor 10 uF 25v 1 K1 Buzzer 1 Three subsystems and active component s Subsystem 1 Operational amplifier uA741 An operational amplifier is usually said as an op-amp. Its a DC coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier, with deferential inputs but its usually a single output controlled by negative feedback which determines magnitudes of its output voltage gain, and has high input impedance, low output impedance. Used with split supply, usually +/- 15V. The most common and most famous op-amp is the mA741C or just 741, which is packaged in an 8-pin mini-DIP. The integrated circuit contains 20 transistors and 11 resistors Pin layout Feature Large input voltage range No latch-up High gain Short-circuit protection no frequency compensation Subsystem 2 PNP transistor Transistor PNP it consists of two P-N junctions transistor back to back like this: The arrows are there to represent the conventional flowing of current from positive to negative. Some semiconductors have an excess of electrons, n-type material that is due to doping of the semiconductors, while others have a deficiency of electrons called holes, they are found in P-type materials. When base emitter voltage is about 0.7 v, thats when the transistors conducts. Current are controlled by transistors devices. The bigger the base-emitter current, the bigger the collector-emitter current. The transistors are used as: an amplifier or a solid state switch. Pin layout Subsystem 3 NE555 timer 555 timers is an extremely stable regulator which is capable of producing precise time delays. In the time delay process the time is controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. The frequency and the cycle are controlled by two external resistors and one capacitor for a stable operation as an oscillator. The output can drop down to 200mA. FEATURES Turn-off time less than 2 ms Max. operating frequency greater than 500 kHz Timing from microseconds to hours Operates in both a-stable and mono-stable modes High output current Adjustable duty cycle TTL compatible Temperature stability of 0.005% per  °C Pin configuration Specification Input voltage 0-9V Output source sound and light Num of functions 1 Product design Intruder alarm Reliability good quality Technical functionality Sense shadows of intruder Process The circuit is able to sense intruders shadow and make the alarm go off. Scale of operation Normal Size length 20cm x 8 cm, height 2cm Capability It only takes 1 action Cost  £5 Quality standards has to meet the health and safety act of 1974 Legislation Health and safety at work act 1974 Timescales 18 weeks Physical and human resource implications the circuit that can be built manually. It will be built Using breadboards and components or with the use of circuit wizard. Other components LED When LED is forward bias then it going to emit lights and converts electrical energy to light. Capacitor The capacitor is a component to stores up electronic charge and releases when its needed. Capacitor comes in massive range of sizes and types for to be used in adaptable power, conditioning, smoothing and isolating signals. They are made from various materials and all the electronic system uses them. Capacitor Symbol = C, Unit = Farads Charge Symbol = Q, Unit = Coulombs Potential difference = V, Units = Volts The capacitor can charge and discharge quickly. Its made of two plates separated by an insulator or air. When a plate is charged the other plate is charged oppositely. The charge can build up and remain after the current is gone. Materials in capacitor 6 volt battery Two large electrolytic capacitors, 1000  µF minimum (Radio Shack catalogue # 272-1019, 272-1032, or equivalent) Two 1 kÃŽÂ © resistors One toggle switch, SPST (Single-Pole, Single-Throw) Resistor A resistor is a passive electrical component which controls the flow of current. There are two types of resistor one is called fixed resistor and the other is called variable resistor. The resistance of a resistor is measured in ohms and it can be measured by colour coding band and measurement. Potentiometer (pot) This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts (a potentiometer) is usually used to control voltage. It regulates the voltage in the circuit. Light dependent resistor (LDR) Its an electrical component which converts brightness (light) to resistance. The LDR depends on the intensity of light for its value. Buzzer Its an electrical device that produces and buzzing sounds when a signal has been received. Testing the circuit I first built the circuit on circuit wizard. I put all the components out the page first then I connected all the components and added ground to the circuit. Then I played the circuit which shows the circuit is working perfectly because the Led lit up and the buzzer went off when I turned on the circuit. This shows that all the components are working correctly and there are no faults in the circuit. Safe working procedures Every activity must be carried out in accordance with a developed Safe Working Practice. This will be validated by means of a Risk Assessment. The control measures identified in the risk assessment shall form the basis for the written Safe Working Practice. Consider what must be done before the task starts, How the task is done, what training is needed What competence is required or certification? The action to be taken when the task is complete. Five steps for risks assessment and hazard Identify the hazards Wire cutter sharp edges Long nose pliers sharp edge Components sharp edge from components Decide who might be harmed and how The person who is using equipment will get hurt by cutting them themselves and The people who are around the work could get hurt by leaning on to a sharp component. Evaluate the risks and decide on precaution The risks are very similar, there are all involved with sharp edges. The user of the equipment could get hurt by losing concentration and accidently cut their finger. The precautions would be to always have full concentration when cutting wires and the user should make sure they are careful when cutting the wires and keeping their fingers away from the sharp edges. Record your findings and implement them The results of my risk assessment are that most people are cutting their fingers as they cut the wires. The reason behind that is people are not concentrating when using the wire cutters and pliers. To avoid these risks there should not be more then two people in the workshop. When there are lots of people in the workshop the users could lose their concentration easily. Review your assessment and update if necessary To review the risk assessment I have decided to update the wire cutter with a wire cutting machine so when people use it they wont cut their fingers. PPE PPE refers to protective clothing and other devices that are designed to protect an individual while in potentially dangerous areas or performing potentially hazardous operations. Examples of PPE include gloves, hard hat, steel toed boots, and safety glasses. Making the subsystems This is the first subsystem where the operational amplifier uA741 is. It also had LDR, pot and two resistors. I connected the circuit with black wiring to the negative and red wiring to the positive. This is my second subsystem where the BC157 NPN transistor is at. It also had components such as resistors and LED. As I connected the first subsystems wiring with black to negative and red to positive I continued to follow the same procedures. This is my third subsystem where the 555 timer is at. It also has components such resistors, transistors, capacitors and a buzzer. I connected the circuit with black wiring to the negative and red wiring to the positive. Testing the circuits The method I used to test my circuit is voltmeter, logic probe and oscilloscope. I used the voltmeter to check the circuit has correct reading on each outputs and inputs. I used the logic probe to test the circuit by checking if the circuit has the correct readings. And I used the oscilloscope to make a sine wave when the alarm goes off. Firstly I tested my subsystem which had some faults in it. The faults which did not give any reading on the voltmeter, was some wires were misplaced. So after I correct my mistake the circuit was working the out of the circuit was an LED which lit up and I got reading on the voltmeter. In the first image the LED is lit up and the voltmeter reading is 1.88v but when the LDR I covered on the image on the right the LED switches off and the voltmeter reading decreases to 1.31v. The readings on the voltmeter, and LED switching on and off shows that the circuit is working correctly. My second subsystem had faults with it which I could not find a solution to it. I tried testing it with voltmeter and logic probe but the result was negative. So I decided to put my second subsystem with my third subsystem. I connected both circuits together and put the power on to find out that the buzzer is working but the Led wasnt lighting up. I tried replacing the LED quit few times to if the Led had a fault with it. I also had some minor problems with the wring but that was simple enough to fix. Putting all subsystem together I started to put the subsystems together by firstly connecting all three breadboards together, and then I connected to the power supply to one of the breadboard. I had to connect all three circuits so I cut out some wires and connected positive to positive and negative to negative so all the circuits are connected. So now to test the circuit I put the power supply on and then connected a voltmeter to check all the components in the circuit are working correctly. Then I connected the buzzer which was buzzing but did not stop until I disconnected the circuit and the LED did not light up either. To find the faults I went over the circuits to check for any faults. I did find some faults but they were just simple wring problems which I fixed with ease but the circuit still not work. After replacing some components the circuit was still not working. After doing all the tests I could do I decided to take out the second subsystem because it did not work when I was testing it but it worked with the third subsystem. As I removed the second subsystem the circuit started to work. I then check it with voltmeter to make sure the circuit was working correctly. The Led lit up too and went off when I covered the LDR.

The Character of Ophelia in Shakespeares Hamlet :: GCSE English Literature Coursework

Gunnar Boklund in â€Å"Hamlet† performs a partial-analysis on the character of Ophelia in Shakespeare’s tragedy, Hamlet: The only character who is presented almost entirely as a victim is Ophelia, a victim of the King’s fear and curiosity, her father’s servility and fundamental indifference to her, Hamlet’s misunderstanding of the situation and brutal treatment of her, and finally his fatal thrust through the arras in the closet scene. Her madness is, as I see it, a purely pathetic element in the play. In the world where Hamlet has been forced to act, there appears to be no room for passive and obedient innocence. It is crushed, and perishes. (123) It is the intent of this essay to examine the â€Å"passive and obedient innocence† of this victimized character, as well as many other facets of the interesting personality of Hamlet’s girlfriend – with input from numerous literary critics. The protagonist of the tragedy, Prince Hamlet, initially appears in the play dressed in solemn black, mourning the death of his father supposedly by snakebite while he was away at Wittenberg as a student. Hamlet laments the hasty remarriage of his mother to his father’s brother, an incestuous act; thus in his first soliloquy he cries out, â€Å"Frailty, thy name is woman!† Ophelia enters the play with her brother Laertes, who, in parting for school, bids her farewell and gives her advice regarding her relationship with Hamlet. Ophelia agrees to abide by the advice: â€Å"I shall the effect of this good lesson keep as watchman to my heart.† After Laertes’ departure, Polonius inquires of Ophelia concerning the â€Å"private time† which Hamlet spends with her. He dismisses Hamlet’s overtures as â€Å"Affection, puh!† Polonius considers Ophelia a â€Å"green girl,† incapable of recognizing true love: â€Å"These blazes . . . you mu st not take for fire.† He gets her assurance that she will not talk with Hamlet anymore.    When the ghost talks privately to Hamlet, he learns not only about the murder of his father, but also about the unfaithfulness and adultery of his mother. Gertrude was seduced by â€Å"that incestuous, that adulterate beast,/With witchcraft of his wit, with traitorous gifts† – Claudius himself – prior to his brother’s passing. â€Å"So lust, though to a radiant angel link'd,/Will sate itself in a celestial bed,/And prey on garbage.† In the mind of Hamlet, this drastically reduces the goodness of womankind generally. Hamlet chooses to use an â€Å"antic disposition† to disguise his actions as he maneuvers to kill the one who poisoned his father in the garden.

Constructing Fantasy in Hitchcocks Vertigo Essay -- Alfred Hitchcock

Constructing Fantasy in Hitchcock's Vertigo The amount of critical analysis surrounding Alfred Hitchcock's Vertigo is itself dizzying, but as the film has recently been restored, it seems appropriate to provide it with a fresh critical reading. The purpose of this paper then, is to draw this film out of the past with a reading that offers not only a new way of understanding it, but a close look at the culture that produced it. Specifically, Vertigo offers its most exciting ideas when contextualized in a culture of consumerism. Consumerism shaped the film, and also shapes the way we view it. The desire of the consumer is the driving force behind not only our economy, but our mode of seeing the world, and seeing films. As consumers, we are always looking for, and looking at, new commodities, especially clothing. We gaze at clothing in shop windows. We purchase it and wear it, making it visible to others. Indeed, the desire to buy clothing is linked closely to our desire to show it off. We shop in a visual economy, a visual culture of consumption. To understand this culture it is important to understand the historical figure of the flà ¢neur. The flà ¢neur is a wandering male consumer of images who is, and was, particularly in the nineteenth century, the visual and economic agent at the center of consumer culture. He is also at the center of Vertigo, personified in the main character, Scotty. The flà ¢neur is an inveterate urban wanderer and voyeur who is at home in the public spaces. In the words of Baudelaire, "for the perfect flà ¢neur, for the passionate spectator, it is an immense joy to set up house in the heart of the multitude, amid the ebb and flow of movement" (qtd. in Brand 5). Walter Benjamin, in his work on the... ...lso of women displayed in windows. 3 Sometimes coincidence aids criticism. Kim Novak was, according to Hitchcock, quite proud of the fact that she didn't wear a bra during the filming of Vertigo (Truffaut 248). Works Cited Brand, Dana. The Sectator and the City in Nineteenth-Century American Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1991. Gleber, Anke. The Art of Taking a Walk: Flanerie, litera ture, and Film in Weimar Culture. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1999. Friedberg, Anne. Window Shopping: Cinema and the Postmodern. Berkeley: U of California P, 1993. Simmons, Patricia. "Women in Frames: The Gaze, the Eye, the Profile in Renaissance Portraiture." The Expanding Discourse. Ed. Norma Broude and Mary Garrard. New York: Harper Collins. 39-57. Steele, Richard. "Spectator No. 454" 1712. The Spectator, A new edition. Cincinnati: Applegate & Co., 1857.

Automobile and Scientific Inventions Essay

There are many scientific inventions in our world. Some of these inventions are even in the houses that we live in. There are inventions such as computer games, the microwave oven, and even the Moto vehicle. These inventions make our lives much easier but it destroys the world as well. Everything and everyone gets harmed some way by these inventions. Let’s start off with this. The computer is entertaining but yet dangerous to our eyes. Children of our world love being on the computer. But they shouldn’t love it too much, because if you stare and are too close to the computer for far too long, your eyes begin to hurt and you become shot sighted. This is so because your brain decides that you don’t need to be able to see things far away and only see thing that are close to you. The computer is one of the best inventions because it helps you with a lot of things. Number one is work. It allows us to save all our important document and keeps them in a private file. The microwave oven. This is a machine that heats thing. It’s great in homes for when you want to heat foods. About 1/3 of the world has one. I’ll say this; microwave oven heats your foods but also destroys your health. As the microwave heats up, it sends of radiation inside and out. Your foods become polluted with radiation and if you’re too close to it you as well. Who likes eating cold food? I mean we all like food nice and hot, so we should have a microwave oven in our houses. I personally can’t go without a microwave. It one of my favorite scientific inventions. One of the most used scientific inventions would be the motor vehicle. Now this is brilliant! The motor vehicle or should I say, cars are very common to our modern day lives. EVERYBODY has one. Well if you have a license of course. Now cars are a complex piece of machinery. It’s like you’re basically holding a fully loaded gun. Almost every day there is an accident that occurs. We may not see it, but it happens. People get greatly injured or even die from car accidents. On the positive side, cars do have its advantages. People use cars to transport themselves around. It takes you from one place to another. Instead of having to walk, you drive. Another thing about cars, it pollutes the air badly. This is so because cars give off a great deal of smoke sometimes. This affects the greenhouse gases and even worse, the ozone layer. If the air is completely contaminated people with die. People that believe these machines are not good for our lives are somewhat correct but wrong. I believe that it has made our lives really easy and less complex. I think it has done wonders to the world and we should all appreciate the advantage we get from this.

Mermaids

The French Revolution in the Minds of Men Author(s): Maurice Cranston Reviewed work(s): Source: The Wilson Quarterly (1976-), Vol. 13, No. 3 (Summer, 1989), pp. 46-55 Published by: Wilson Quarterly Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/40257906 . Accessed: 31/05/2012 21:13 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive.We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email  protected] org. Wilson Quarterly and Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Wilson Quarterly (1976-). http://www. jstor. org 1789 THE FRENCH IN THE REVOLUTION OF MEN MINDS by Maurice Cranston July 14, 1989- BastilleDay- political and culturalleaders of every ideological persuasion assembled in Paristo celebratethe bicentennial of the French Revolution.Was there something strange about their unanimous applause? All subsequent major revolutions, such as those that took place in Russia and China, remain controversialtoday. But the French Revolution, which served as the direct or indirect model for these later upheavals, now passes for an innocuous occasion which anyone, Marxistor monarchist,can join in celebrating. Wasthis proof only of the anaesthetizing power of time, that two centuries could turn the French Revolutioninto a museum piece, an exhibitionacceptable to all viewers, even to a descendent of the old Bourbon monarchs?Or is there something about the French Revolution itself that, from its beginning, sets it apart from later revolutions? The tricouleur, the Marseillaise, the monumental paintings of David all celebr ate a series of connected events, alternatelyjoyous and grim, which make up the real, historical French Revolution. But there is another French Revolution, one which emerged only after the tumultuous days were over and the events and deeds became inflated or distorted in the minds of later partisans. This is the French Revolution as myth, and it is in many ways the more importantof the two.It is so, one could argue, because the myth, and not the reality, inspired the scores of revolutions that were to come. The actors of the French Revolution, anWQ SUMMER 1989 nouncing their principles on behalf of all mankind, clearly intended their deeds to have a mythic dimension. They wanted to inspireothers to follow their example. Consider the Declarationof the Rights of Man, passed in Augustof 1789. At no point does it refer to the specific conditions or laws of France. Instead, it speaks in grand universals, as if it were the voice of mankinditself.Replete with terms like citizen, liberty,th e sacred rights of man, the common good, the document provides the lexicon for all future revolutions. By contrast, the earlier revolutionary models which stirredthe French in 1789 to act- the English Revolution of 1688 and the American Revolution of 1776- had been essentiallypolitical events, limited in scope and conservative in objectives. The English revolutionists claimed to restore the liberty that the despotic James II had destroyed; the American revolutionaries made the kindredclaim that they were only defending their rights against tyrannical measures introduced by George III.Neither revolutionsought to change society. The French Revolution, however, sought to do exactly that. Indeed, to many of the more zealous French revolutionaries, the central aim was the creation of a new man- or at least the liberation of pristine man, in all his natural goodness and simplicity, from the cruel and corrupting prison of the traditionalsocial order. It is easy to see how this grandiose vi sion of the Revolution's purpose went hand-in-handwith the emergence of Romanticism.The great Romantic poets and philosophers encouraged people through- 46 1789 out the West to believe that imagination could triumph over custom and tradition, that everything was possible given the will to achieve it. In the early 1790s, the young William Wordsworth expressed the common enthusiasm for the seemingly brave and limitless new world of the Revolution: France standingon the top of golden hours, And human nature seeming born again. Here we encounter one of the many differences between reality and myth.The reality of the French Revolution, as Tocqueville maintained, was prepared by the rationalist philosophers of the 18th-century Enlightenment, by Voltaire, Diderot, Helvetius, d'Alembert, and Holbach no less than by Rousseau. Its myth, however, was perpetuated during the 19th century by Ro- mantic poets such as Byron, Victor Hugo and Holderlin. Byron in his life and in his poetry bore witnes s to that romanticized revolutionary idealism, fighting and then dying as he did to help the Greeks throw off the Turkish yoke and set up a free state of their own.The grandeur of its lofty aims made the French Revolution all the more attractive to succeeding generations of revolutionaries, real and would-be; the violence added theatrical glamor. The guillotine – itself an invention of gruesome fascination together with the exalted status of its victims, many of them royal, noble, or political celebrities, made the Terror as thrilling as it was alarming. The wars which broke out in 1793, when France declared war on Great Britain, Holland, and Spain, were fought not by professional soldiers but by conscripts, ordinary men who were ex-Duringthe 1790s, the FrenchArmybecame the â€Å"schoolof the Revolution,†where volunteers learned to â€Å"knowwhat theyfoughtfor and love what they know. † WQ SUMMER 1989 47 1789 pected to †know what they fought for and love w hat they know. † These wars were thought of as wars of liberation. It hardly matteredthat Napoleon turnedout to be an imperialist conqueror no better than Alexander or Caesar;he was still a people's emperor. If historians of the French Revolution are unanimous about any one point, it is this:thatthe Revolutionbroughtthe people into French political life. To say that it inwould be to say too troduced â€Å"democracy† much.Althoughpopularsuffragein varying degrees was institutedas the revolutionunfolded, no fully democratic system was set up. But popular supportcame to be recognized as the only basis for legitimatingthe nationalgovernment. Even the new despotism of Napoleon had to rest on a plebiscitary authority. These plebiscites, which allowed voters only to ratifydecisions already made, denied popular sovereignty in fact while paying tribute to it in theory. (The vote for the Constitutionwhich made Napoleon emperor in 1804-3,500,000 for versus 2,500 against hardlysugg estsa vigorous democracy. But if Napoleon's government was not democratic, it was obviously populistic. The people did not rule themselves, but they approvedof the man who ruled them. The end of Napoleon's empire in 1815, which was also in a sense the end of the historicalFrench Revolution,could only be brought about by the intervention of foreign armies. Those foreign armies could place a king on the throne of France, as they did with Louis XVIIIin 1815, but they could not restore the principle of royal sovereignty in the hearts of the French people. They simply put a lid on forces which would break ut in anotherrevolution 15 years later,this time not only in France but in other parts of the Westernworld. The French Revolution had turned the French into a republican people. Even when they chose a king- Louis-Philippe to lead that revolution of 1830, he was more of a republican prince than a royal sovereign in the traditional mold. LouisPhilippe,the â€Å"CitizenKing,†had to recognize, as part of his office, â€Å"the sovereignty of the nation. â€Å"And what kind of sovereign is it, one may ask, who has to submit to the sovereigntyof the nation?The answer must clearlybe, one who is king neitherby grace of God nor birth nor lawfulinheritancebut only through the will of the people, who are thus his electors and not his subjects. of â€Å"sovereignty the nation†was a new and powerful idea, a revolutionaryidea, in the 19th century. At the philosophical level, it is usually asto cribed,with some justification, the teachof JeanJacques Rousseau, whom Eding mund Burke, Alexis de Tocqueville, and many lesser commentators considered the ideologue of the French Revolution.What Rousseau did was to separate the concept which he said should be kept of sovereignty, the people in their own hands, from the by which he urged the concept of government, people to entrustto carefullychosen elites, their moral and intellectual superiors. Rousseauheld that neither h ereditarykings nor aristocratscould be considered superiors of this kind. Rousseau was uncompromisinglyrepublican. To him a republic could be based only on the collective will of citizens who contracted to live together under laws that they themselves enacted. â€Å"Myargument,†Rousseauwrote in TheSo-Maurice Cranston, a former Wilson Center Guest Scholar, is professor of political science at the London School of Economics. Born in London, he was educated at St. Catherine'sCollege and The His OxfordUniversity. books include John StuartMill (1965),Jean-Jacques: EarlyLife and Work of Jean-JacquesRousseau, 1712-54 (1982), and John Locke: A Biography(1985). WQ SUMMER 1989 48 1789 Three Leaders Three Phases of the Revolution. The liberalMarquisde Lafayetteinitiallyguided the Revolution. GeorgesDanton helped overthrowthe monarchy,but was executedfor being too moderate. Robespierre was both directorand victim of the Terror. ial Contract, â€Å"is that sovereignty, being nothing othe r than the exercise of the general will, can never be alienated; and the sovereign, which is simply a collective being, cannot be represented by anyone but itself- power may be delegated, but the will cannot be. † The sheer size of France, however, with a population in 1789 of some 26 million of people, precluded the transformation the French kingdom into the sort of direct democracy that Rousseau a native Swissthe Americanshad very reenvisaged. Still, cently proved that a nation need not be as small as a city-statefor a republican constitution to work.And as an inspirationto the average Frenchman, the American Revolution was no less importantthan the writings of Rousseau. The American Revolution thus became a model for France,despite its conservative elements. Moreover,the AmericanRevolution later served as a model for others largely because its principles were â€Å"translated† and universalized by the French Revolution. In Latin America, the Spanish and Portuguesecol onies could not directly follow the American example and indict their monarchs for unlawfully violating their rights; Spain and Portugal, unlike England, recognized no such rights.But following the example of the French RevoWQ SUMMER 1989 49 1789 lution, LatinAmericanslike Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martinwere able to appeal to abstract or universal principles. To describe Bolivia's new constitution in 1826, Simon Bolivarused the same universaland idealisticcatchwordswhich the French had patented 37 years before: â€Å"In this constitution/' Bolivar announced, â€Å"you will find united all the guarantees of permanency and liberty, of equality and order. † If the South American republics sometimes seemed to run short on republican liberty nd equality,the concept of royal or imperial sovereignty was nonetheless banished forever from American shores. The short reign of Maximilianof Austriaas Emperor of Mexico ( 1864- 1867) provideda brief and melancholy epilogue to such ide as of sovereignty in the New World. Even in the Old World,royal and aristocratic governments were on the defensive. In 1815, the Congress of Vienna, under Prince Metternichof Austria'sguidance, attempted to erase the memory of the Revolution and restore Europe to what it had been before 1789.Yet only five years after the Congress,Metternichwrote to the Russian tsar,AlexanderI, admitting,†Thegovernments, having lost their balance, are frightened, intimidated, and thrown into confusion. † French Revolution had permanently destroyed the mystique on which traditional regimes were based. No king could indisputablyclaim that he ruled by divine right; nor could lords and bishops assume that their own interests and the nationalinterestscoincided. After the French Revolution, commoners, the hitherto silent majorityof ordinaryunderprivilegedpeople, asserted the right to have opinions of their own- and to make them known.For once the ideas of liberty, democracy,and the rightsof men had been extracted from philosophers'treatises and put on the agenda of political actionwhich is what the French Revolution with its â€Å"universalprinciples†did- there could be no security for any regime which set itself againstthose ideals. In old history textbooks one can still find the interpretation of the French Revolutionfirstadvancedby Jules Micheletand Jean Jaures and other left-wing historians who explained the Revolution as one abolishing feudalismand advancing bourgeois capitalist society.While few historians still view the Revolution this way,the Micheletinterpretation was widespread during the 19th century,and its currency promptedmany an aspiring Robespierreto â€Å"comThe revolutionaryuprisingin Frankfurt 1848. â€Å"Thedull sound plete† the revolution. in Completing the revoluof revolution,†which VictorHugo had detected â€Å"pushingout under every kingdomin Europe,†grew dramaticallyloud thatyear. tion meant overthrowing 50 WQ SUMMER 19 89 1789 the bourgeoisie in favor of the working class, just as the bourgeoisie had supposedly overthrown the feudal aristocracyin 1789.The convulsive year of 1848 was marked in Europe by several revolutions which attempted to complete the work of 1789. Their leaders all looked back to the FrenchRevolutionfor their â€Å"historicjustification. â€Å"Tocquevilleobservedof these revolutionaries that their â€Å"imitation [of 1789] was so manifestthat it concealed the terrible originalityof the facts;I continuallyhad the impression they were engaged in playactingthe FrenchRevolutionfar more than continuing it. If the 19th centurywas, as many historians describe it, the â€Å"century of revolutions,†it was so largelybecause the French Revolution had provided the model. As it turns out, the existence of a proper model has proved to be a more decisive prod to revolution than economic crisis, political unrest, or even the agitations of young revolutionaries. Indeed, the role of pr ofessionalrevolutionaries seems negligible in the preparation of most revolutions. Revolutionaries often watched and analyzed the political and social disintegrationaround them, but they were seldom in a position to direct it.Usually,as HannahArendtobserved,†revolution broke out and liberated,as it were, the professional revolutionistsfrom wherever they happened to be- from jail, or from the coffee house, or from the library. † Tocqueville made a similar observation about the revolutionaries of 1848: The French monarchy fell â€Å"before rather than beneath the blows of the victors, who were as astonishedat their triumph as were the vanquishedat their defeat. † Disturbances which during the 18th century would hardly have proven so incendiary ignited one revolution after another during the 19th century.They did so because now there existed a revolutionary model for respondingto crises. During the 1790s, revolutionaries outside of France such as ToussaintL'Ouverture Haiti and in Wolfe Tone in Ireland tried simply to import the French Revolution,with its ideals of nationalism,equalityand republicanism, and adapt it to local conditions. And well into the 19th century,most revolutionaries continued to focus their eyes not on the future but on the past- on what the French duringthe 1790s had done in roughlysimilar circumstances. e sure, the French Revolution possessed differentand even contradictory meanings, differences which reflect die various stages of the historical Revolution. The ideals and leaders of each stage inspired a particulartype of The revolutionarymen later revolutionary. of 1789-91, including the Marquisde Lafayette, inspired liberal and aristocratic revolutionaries. Their ideal was a quasiBritish constitutional monarchy and suffrage based on propertyqualifications. The revolutionariesof 1830-32 realizedthis liberal vision in France and Belgium.The Girondins and moderate Jacobins of 1792-93 became the model for lowermiddle-class and intellectual revolutionaries whose political goal was a democratic republic and usually some form of a â€Å"welfare state. â€Å"The French Revolutionof 1848, with its emphasis on universal manhood suffrage and the state's obligation to provide jobs for all citizens, initiallyembodied their vision of society. A third type of revolutionary,the extremists of 1793-94 such as Robespierre and GracchusBabeuf, inspired later working-classand socialist revolutionaries.A reactionarysuch as Prince Metternich would hardly have distinguished among these three types of revolutionaries. But a later observer,Karl Marx,did. Seeing that the nationalist revolutions of his time igWQ SUMMER 1989 51 1789 Lenin (shown here in a 1919 photograph) exploitedthe precedentof the FrenchRevolution to legitimizethe BolshevikRevolutionin the eyes of the world. nored the socialist-radical strain of the French Revolution, he came to deplore its influence on later revolutionaries.Marx,who by 1848 was alreadyac tive in communist politics, condemned what he considered the confusion of understanding in most of these revolutionarymovements. An emotional yearning to reenact the dramas of 1789-1815 seemed to him to stand in the way of a successful revolutionary strategy. In a letter to a friend in September, 1870, Marxwrote: â€Å"The tragedyof the French, and of the working class as a whole, is that they are trapped in their memories of momentous events. We need to see an end, once and for all, to this reactionary cult of the past. † VladimirIlyich Lenin had no such resWQ SUMMER 1989 ervations.He passed up no rhetorical opportunityto present his Russian Bolsheviks as the heirs of the French revolutionary traditionand the RussianRevolutionof 1917 as a reenactment of France'sRevolution of 1789. Lenin went so far as to call his Bolshevik faction â€Å"the Jacobins of contemporarySocial-Democracy. † is not difficult to understandLenin's motives. Throughoutthe 19th century, most of th e successful revolutions in Europe and Latin America had been nationalist revolutions. (Indeed, when the revolutionaryGerman liberals of 1848 issued their Declaration of Rights, they ascribed those rightsto the GermanVolkas a whole and not to privatepersons. But the 52 1789 into his hands but the ideology and propaexample of the French Revolution suga revolutioncould be more than ganda adopted by the Allied powers in gested that World War I did so as well. When their just a matter of nationalism. Takingthe example of the French Revolution under the earlymilitarycampaignswent badly,the Alfanatical Robespierre,one could argue, as lies attemptedto make the war more popuLenin did, that the true goal of revolution lar, and the enormous casualties more tolwas to alter the way people lived together, erable,by declaringtheir cause to be a war In for â€Å"liberty. the name of liberty,Great socially and economically. as we know, Lenin looked back Britain, France, and the United States enYet , a century when attempts at radical couraged the subject nations of the Gerupon social revolutions had been ultimatelyand man, Austrian and Turkish empires to uniformlyabortive. The French Revolution throw off the imperialyoke. of 1848, which removed the â€Å"liberal†King But in championingnationalliberty,the Allies were guilty of hypocrisy.Neither Louis-Philippe,briefly gave greater power to the working class. Duringits most prom- GreatBritainnor France had any intention of permittingnationalistrevolutionswithin ising days, the anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865) even accepted a their own empires or those of any neutral seat in the legislative chamber. But the power. But Leninwas able to catch them in the trap of their own contradictions. coup d'etat of Napoleon III in 1851 soon brought an end to all this.The communist By declaring to the world that the Bolshevik seizure of power in 1917 was a removement, which Marx described as a enactment of the French Revolutio n, he specter haunting Europe, produced no more tangible results than most specters was able to attach to his regime all those do. Before World War I, Marxwas notably less influential as a theoretician than were the champions of â€Å"revolutionary socialism† such as Proudhon and FerdinandLassalle(1825-1864) who persuaded the workers that their interestswould be better served by reform and democratic process than by revolution.It was World War I which put revolutionarysocialism back on the agenda again. The â€Å"war to end all wars†gave Lenin the opportunityto persuade the world that the French Revolution could be repeated as a communist revolution in, of all with a Chinese face†: Mao's Cultural Revolution â€Å"Robespierre places, Russia. Not only did hoped to realizeRobespierre'sdream of pushing beyondpolitical the upheavals of war play reformto remakeman and society. WQ SUMMER 1989 53 1789 strong, if mixed, emotions which the French Revolution had kindled in the outside world from 1789 on.In symbolicways, both large and small- such as naming one of their first naval ships Marat, after the French revolutionaryleader- the early Soviets underscored their connection with the earlier revolution. The attempts of the Allied powers to send in troops to save TsaristRussiafrom the Bolshevikswas immediately seen by a war-wearyworld as a reactionary,counter-revolutionary†White Terror,†and public opinion soon put an end to that intervention. After1917,the Soviet Union'sself-image became less that of a revolutionaryregime socialist and more that of a well-established empire.This transition unexpectedly enabled its adherents at last to obey Marx's injunctionto abolish the cult of the revolutionary past and to fix their eyes on the present. The idea of revolutionthus passed from the left to the ultra-left,to Stalin and Trotskyand, later, to Mao Zedong and his CulturalRevolutionin China. Yet even during the extreme phase of the CulturalRevo lution, Mao still evinced his debt to the French Revolution, a debt which he shares with the later â€Å"Third World†revolutionaries.Whenever a revolutionary leader, from Ho Chi Minh and FrantzFanonto Fidel Castroand Daniel Ortega, speaksof a new man, or of restructuring a whole society, or of creating a new human order,one hears againthe ideas and assumptionsfirst sounded on the political stage during the French Revolution. fact, there can be no doubt that a â€Å"cultural revolution† is what Robespierre set afoot in France, and what, if he had lived, he would have tried to bring to completion. As a disciple of Rousseau, he truly believed that existing culture had corruptedmodern man in all classes of society, and that an entirely new culture was WQ SUMMER 1989 ecessaryif men were to recover their natural goodness. The new religious institutions which Robespierre introduced the cult of the Supreme Being and the worship of Truthat the altar of Reason, as well as the ne w patrioticfestivalsto replace the religious holidays were all intended to be part of what can only be called a cultural revolution. Robespierredid not believe that political, social, and economic changes alone, however radical,would enable men to achieve their full humanity.But while the ideals and the languageof the cultural revolution sound nobler than those of the political revolution,such elevation of thought seems only to authorize greater cruelty in action. Robespierre's domination of the French Revolution lasted for only a short period, from April 1793 until July 1794, when he himself died under the same guillotine which he had used to execute his former friendsand supposed enemies. Moderationwas restoredto the French Revolution after his execution by the least idealistic of its participants a a cynical Talleyrand, pusillanimousSieyes, and a crudely ambitious Napoleon. ikewise, moderation was restored to the Chinese Revolutionby the Chineseadmirersof Richard Nixon. Yet while moderation had been restored to the real historical French of Revolution,the inevitability the returnto was often conveniently ig†normalcy† nored by later revolutionaries. And what of France itself? At first glance, all the majorsubsequent â€Å"dates†of French history seem to be in a revolutionary tradition or at least of revolutionary magnitude- 1830 (Louis-Philippe); 1848 (the Second Republic); 1852 (the Second Empire); 1871 (the Third Republic); 1940 (the Vichy French State); 1945 (the Fourth Republic); 1958 (the Fifth Republic).Yet these headline dates, all suggesting recurrent tumult, may be misleading:Francehas not been wracked by major upheavalsnor 54 1789 that left the structure by social earthquakes of society unrecognizable, as Russia and Chinawere aftertheir revolutions. Continuity may be the most striking feature in Frenchlife. Robertand BarbaraAnderson's Bus Stop to Paris (1965) showed how a village not more than 10 miles from Paris remained unaffec tedyear afteryear by all the great rumblingsin the capital. Are we dealing with a revolutionwhose myth is all out of proportionto the facts?Tocqueville,that most dependableof all politicalanalysts,offersan answer:The major change effected by the Bourbon kings duringthe 17th and 18th centuries was the increasingcentralizationof France and the creation of a strong bureaucracyto administer it. This bureaucracy,in effect, ruled France then and has continued to rule it through every social upheaval and behind every facade of constitutionalchange. This bureaucracyhas providedstabilityand continuitythroughthe ups and downs of political fortune.The French Revolutionand Napoleon, far from making an abrupt break with the past, continued and even accelerated the tendencytowardbureaucraticcentralization. Tocquevillealmost broached sayingthat the French Revolution never happened, that the events not only looked theatrical but were theatrical:The French could afford to have as many revolutions as they pleased, because no matter what laws they enacted, or what persons they placed in their legislative and executive offices, the same civil servants, the functionaries,the members of V would remain Administration, in command. any revolutions can the historian cite as having left the people better off at the end than they were at the beginning? Unfortunatelythe discrepancybetween its mythand its reality may have made the French Revolution a deceptive model for other nations to imitate. The mythtreatedsociety like a neutral, ahistoricalprotoplasmfrom which old corrupt institutions could be extracted and into which new rules for human interaction could be inserted at will. The reality was that France, with its unusually strong state bureaucracy, could withstand the shocks and traumas of radical constitutional upheaval.In modern history, revolution often seems a luxurythat only privilegedpeoples such as the French and the Americansand the English can afford. Less fortunatepeoples, f rom the Russiansin 1918 to the Cambodians in 1975, on whom the burden of the establishedregimes weighed more cruelly, have often enacted their revolutions with catastrophicresults. It is perhaps one of the harsherironies of history that, since the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the more a country appears to need a revolution, the less likely it will be able to accomplish one successfully. WQ SUMMER 1989 55